Tyranny of Rome and Expressions of Oppression in the Book of Revelation
"After this I saw another angel coming down from heaven, having great authority; and the earth was made bright with his splendour. He called out with a mighty voice, ‘Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great!"
Revelation 18:1-2
Revelation 18:1-2
I. Introduction
The book of Revelation presents a chaotic world dominated by cyclical visions of a cosmic drama that unfolds within the twenty-one chapters. This apocalyptic imagery reflects “the fears of early Christians, a beleaguered minority in an environment hostile to the new religious movement” (Frilingos 2004, 1). Fear is propagated on the notion of an overruling power that supersedes the autonomy of an individual with negative repercussions. This power dichotomy of ruled and ruling presents itself through many different images in the book of Revelation. Specifically, expressions of Roman power and affluence are seen in the image of the whore of Babylon. Through this imagery, John of Patmos sought to subvert the powerful authority of the ruling Roman Empire and establish a new power through the authority of Christ.
The book of Revelation presents a chaotic world dominated by cyclical visions of a cosmic drama that unfolds within the twenty-one chapters. This apocalyptic imagery reflects “the fears of early Christians, a beleaguered minority in an environment hostile to the new religious movement” (Frilingos 2004, 1). Fear is propagated on the notion of an overruling power that supersedes the autonomy of an individual with negative repercussions. This power dichotomy of ruled and ruling presents itself through many different images in the book of Revelation. Specifically, expressions of Roman power and affluence are seen in the image of the whore of Babylon. Through this imagery, John of Patmos sought to subvert the powerful authority of the ruling Roman Empire and establish a new power through the authority of Christ.
Dynamics in power relationships manifest in a variety of ways that through discourse, economics, culture or law. Michel Foucault describes power in these terms of social engagement that operate as a force that produces knowledge that reinforces this power. In doing so, individuals are disciplined and conditioned in accordance to this regime of truth that is widely accepted by the greater society. Edward Said builds upon this idea stating “to have such knowledge of such a thing is to dominate it, to have authority over it. And authority here means for ‘us’ to deny autonomy to ‘it’,” (Said 1978, 32). Applying this to the Greco-Roman world, one can see the power dichotomy between Romans and non-Romans that plays out with the Empire dictating the production and dissemination of knowledge throughout the world. Orientalism’s ideology in the context of the Greco-Roman world posits the Roman Empire as the powerful “West” and the non-Romans as the “Orient”. This defines the relationship between the insiders and outsiders with the former dominating and the latter being dominated through “having their land occupied, their internal affairs rigidly controlled, their blood and treasure put at the disposal of” the Roman Empire (Said 1978, 36). By structuring a society in such a way, a political vision promoted the reality of the familiar (Rome) versus the strange (Christians). In doing so, Christians and other non-Romans were seen as “irrational, depraved, childlike and different; where Romans perceived themselves to be “rational, virtuous, mature and normal” (Said 1978, 40). This production of knowledge and acceptance as truth throughout society established the otherness of those outside the Roman cultural identity creating divisions of power. By systemically classifying individuals in the Greco-Roman world, knowledge was “regulated first by the local concerns of a specialist, later by the general concerns of a social system of authority,” (Said 1978, 45). Thus solidifying the authoritative power in the categories people were placed into by birth, culture and religion.
II. Insiders and Outsiders in Revelation
The Apocalypse serves to disrupt the categorical definitions of power that pervade within the world of John. In the Mediterranean region where John was residing at the time of writing the Book of Revelation, many different groups co-existed with one another such as the Roman citizens, Jews and the Christians. Each group had their own social norms around who was considered an insider and who was an outsider.
The Apocalypse serves to disrupt the categorical definitions of power that pervade within the world of John. In the Mediterranean region where John was residing at the time of writing the Book of Revelation, many different groups co-existed with one another such as the Roman citizens, Jews and the Christians. Each group had their own social norms around who was considered an insider and who was an outsider.
As the most powerful city in the Mediterranean world, Rome’s perspective on categorization of individuals held the most worth. The most important criterion for Rome defining insiders and outsiders was what type of citizenship was conferred to a person (Collins 1985, 188). Roman citizens comprised the top of the power pyramid and all others who were not were technically considered outsiders. However, a hierarchy existed within the group of outsiders that conferred greater autonomy to those who were local aristocrats or landowners (Collins 1985, 189). The bottom of the pyramid was comprised of those who were considered metics or resident aliens, who also had a hierarchical ranking on individuals within that group. Within this group contained the Jews and Christians that lived under the Roman Empire. Jews had less of hierarchy on who was considered an insider or outsider with most individuals viewing themselves as part of an ethnic group (Collins 1985, 201). To be included within the Jewish community one needed to be born into it, become a proselyte or immigrate and also adhere to observance of Jewish law including worship of only the God of the Jews. All others who did not fit this were considered outsiders from the Jewish perspective – Romans, Greeks and other polytheists (Collins 1985, 202). From the Christian perspective, all who acknowledge Jesus as the anointed Son of God were insiders. There was fluidity in the identification of insiders and outsiders in part due to the diversity of house churches and beliefs/practices held. Difficulties arose out of this diversity as many different groups of Christians could see one another as outsiders due to varying practices.
III. Rome and Revelation
In the book of Revelation, this harsh nature towards those who were not Christian or did not follow John’s ideas of Christianity were seen in the beginning with his letters to the seven churches. His sentiments “reflect the “struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals,” (Collins 1985). This struggle presents itself in the context of this otherness and alienation that John felt from the other cultural groups present such as the Jews and the Romans. By informing us of this theological dilemma, “John attempts to maintain the superiority of his prophetic view of reality and of God as well as to help individual Christians face the terror of death,” (Fiorenza 1985, 197). This subversion of power works to undermine the authority of the Roman Empire that sought control over all individuals through the spectacle of this power. John’s perception to see Rome’s political and economic grandeur was a “call for Christians to sever all economic and political ties with an Empire that had sold out to injustice, idolatry and greed,” (Kraybill 1996, 16). The profits of the Empire served to showcase the power it held in its role as “capital, symbol and showpiece of the Empire,” (Profits of Empire). To further flaunt their affluence and power, Rome would import an astonishing amount of raw exotic materials to garnish their buildings (Profits of Empire). In response to the extravagant power put on display, John “warned Christian to sever or to avoid economic and political ties with Rome because institutions and structures of the Roman Empire were saturated with unholy allegiance to an Emperor who claimed to be divine (or was treated as such),” (Kraybill 1996, 17). In light of this, John constructs the image of a whore in Revelation 18 that mimics the affluence of Rome in order encourage Christians to sever the economic and politics ties to “an Empire that had sold out to injustice, idolatry and greed,” (Kraybill 1996, 16).
In the book of Revelation, this harsh nature towards those who were not Christian or did not follow John’s ideas of Christianity were seen in the beginning with his letters to the seven churches. His sentiments “reflect the “struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals,” (Collins 1985). This struggle presents itself in the context of this otherness and alienation that John felt from the other cultural groups present such as the Jews and the Romans. By informing us of this theological dilemma, “John attempts to maintain the superiority of his prophetic view of reality and of God as well as to help individual Christians face the terror of death,” (Fiorenza 1985, 197). This subversion of power works to undermine the authority of the Roman Empire that sought control over all individuals through the spectacle of this power. John’s perception to see Rome’s political and economic grandeur was a “call for Christians to sever all economic and political ties with an Empire that had sold out to injustice, idolatry and greed,” (Kraybill 1996, 16). The profits of the Empire served to showcase the power it held in its role as “capital, symbol and showpiece of the Empire,” (Profits of Empire). To further flaunt their affluence and power, Rome would import an astonishing amount of raw exotic materials to garnish their buildings (Profits of Empire). In response to the extravagant power put on display, John “warned Christian to sever or to avoid economic and political ties with Rome because institutions and structures of the Roman Empire were saturated with unholy allegiance to an Emperor who claimed to be divine (or was treated as such),” (Kraybill 1996, 17). In light of this, John constructs the image of a whore in Revelation 18 that mimics the affluence of Rome in order encourage Christians to sever the economic and politics ties to “an Empire that had sold out to injustice, idolatry and greed,” (Kraybill 1996, 16).
IV. The Whore of Babylon
This idolatry, power and greed carry over into the imagery used throughout the book of Revelation to subvert the Roman authority of that time. The parallels that John draws from in Revelation 17-18 relate Rome to the great Empire of Babylon. Both cities acted as centers of commerce, politics, ritual and power – shaping the landscape from where John drew upon his rhetorical critique. The structure of the two cities heightens the rhetoric used showing Babylon/Rome as an “idolatrous city that seduces and oppresses nations and people with the wine of the wrath of its prostitution,” (Rossing 1999,1). By naming the whore Babylon, John forms the link between the whore and the city. This identification delivers a negative message to the readers in regards to the sexualized, lustful imperium that surrounds them. The labeling also “serves as a political and economic indictment of Rome for enriching itself at the expense of colonized peoples, and forcibly seducing its client states,” (Rossing 1999, 70). Reflecting back on the Said’s philosophy of Orientalism, one can see how post-colonialism and otherization can be applied in the context of Revelation 17-18. Caroline Vander Stichele synthesizes these points in describing Babylon as the “other”, “an alien territory to be conquered and eventually destroyed, thus presuming and affirming an analogy between military and sexual invasion, the colonizer presented as male, the colonized as female,” (Vander Stichele).
The imagery of prostitution evokes the negative interactions of fornication and intoxication that John hopes the reader will see. In doing so, he “constructs Babylon as a dangerous and enticing figure who has lured the world into its sphere of influence and now must be judged,” (Rossing 1999, 71). While the power of the Roman Empire is undermined and the power of Christ is emphasized, John still maintains gender power structures to illustrate this point. Power over city through the metaphor of power over female enforces gender relations that are further strengthen these gender roles within society. By creating the connection “of women with a nation’s land/property results in a colonizer’s destroying land and raping women as facets of the same impulse, to destroy the enemy’s property (land and women) and also to humiliate the male enemy who is unable to protect his land and women,” (Kim, 14). Fear of imperialism and fear of contempt are infused into the typical pattern of the seductive whore, whose erotic power over men is to destroy the homogeneity of one’s own patriarchal society. John’s use of the whore challenges the masculinity of the Roman Empire by creating the image of the Empire giving into the wild, unruly behaviors of the prostitute. In doing so, the woman challenges the masculine discourse with the sexual nature of the female body revealing the failure of male power (Kim, 16).
This idolatry, power and greed carry over into the imagery used throughout the book of Revelation to subvert the Roman authority of that time. The parallels that John draws from in Revelation 17-18 relate Rome to the great Empire of Babylon. Both cities acted as centers of commerce, politics, ritual and power – shaping the landscape from where John drew upon his rhetorical critique. The structure of the two cities heightens the rhetoric used showing Babylon/Rome as an “idolatrous city that seduces and oppresses nations and people with the wine of the wrath of its prostitution,” (Rossing 1999,1). By naming the whore Babylon, John forms the link between the whore and the city. This identification delivers a negative message to the readers in regards to the sexualized, lustful imperium that surrounds them. The labeling also “serves as a political and economic indictment of Rome for enriching itself at the expense of colonized peoples, and forcibly seducing its client states,” (Rossing 1999, 70). Reflecting back on the Said’s philosophy of Orientalism, one can see how post-colonialism and otherization can be applied in the context of Revelation 17-18. Caroline Vander Stichele synthesizes these points in describing Babylon as the “other”, “an alien territory to be conquered and eventually destroyed, thus presuming and affirming an analogy between military and sexual invasion, the colonizer presented as male, the colonized as female,” (Vander Stichele).
The imagery of prostitution evokes the negative interactions of fornication and intoxication that John hopes the reader will see. In doing so, he “constructs Babylon as a dangerous and enticing figure who has lured the world into its sphere of influence and now must be judged,” (Rossing 1999, 71). While the power of the Roman Empire is undermined and the power of Christ is emphasized, John still maintains gender power structures to illustrate this point. Power over city through the metaphor of power over female enforces gender relations that are further strengthen these gender roles within society. By creating the connection “of women with a nation’s land/property results in a colonizer’s destroying land and raping women as facets of the same impulse, to destroy the enemy’s property (land and women) and also to humiliate the male enemy who is unable to protect his land and women,” (Kim, 14). Fear of imperialism and fear of contempt are infused into the typical pattern of the seductive whore, whose erotic power over men is to destroy the homogeneity of one’s own patriarchal society. John’s use of the whore challenges the masculinity of the Roman Empire by creating the image of the Empire giving into the wild, unruly behaviors of the prostitute. In doing so, the woman challenges the masculine discourse with the sexual nature of the female body revealing the failure of male power (Kim, 16).
V. Conclusion
Challenging the natural power discourse of the Roman Empire by exploiting the vulnerability of the prostitute gave John the ability to articulate the weaknesses that existed. The imagery of Revelation 17 displays the fear of imperialism and fear of contempt that are infused into the whore of Babylon, “whose erotic power over men is to destroy the homogeneity of one’s own patriarchal society (Kim, 15). By creating a discourse that flips Rome into outsiders within the Christian world, John challenges the authority of the Empire with the authority of Christ. Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza sums up these points by stating, “Revelation constructs a world of vision that challenges the symbolic discourse of Rome’s hegemonic colonizing power. It does so by fashioning a rival symbolic discourse of power and empire that seeks to unmask the force of evil sustaining Rome’s dominion in order to alienate its audience from the persuasive power of Rome’s hegemonic vision.”
Challenging the natural power discourse of the Roman Empire by exploiting the vulnerability of the prostitute gave John the ability to articulate the weaknesses that existed. The imagery of Revelation 17 displays the fear of imperialism and fear of contempt that are infused into the whore of Babylon, “whose erotic power over men is to destroy the homogeneity of one’s own patriarchal society (Kim, 15). By creating a discourse that flips Rome into outsiders within the Christian world, John challenges the authority of the Empire with the authority of Christ. Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza sums up these points by stating, “Revelation constructs a world of vision that challenges the symbolic discourse of Rome’s hegemonic colonizing power. It does so by fashioning a rival symbolic discourse of power and empire that seeks to unmask the force of evil sustaining Rome’s dominion in order to alienate its audience from the persuasive power of Rome’s hegemonic vision.”
Annotated Bibliography
Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schussler. The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1985.
This novel served as one the continual references through this paper. Fiorenza's thorough examination of Revelation through the lens of justice provided a wealth of knowledge on the background and content. The book has three parts to it. The first two parts discuss the kind of theological-historical perspective and ecclesial situation that Revelation is set it. The third part elaborates how John expresses his theological perspective through the visions described. Fiorenza's argument concludes with focusing on the idolatry of Revelation and how we need to become more aware of the androcentric language that pervades in ancient literature. Revelation then can be seen perpetuating injustices through the message of justice it creates.
Frilingos, Christopher A. Spectacles of Empire: Monsters, Martyrs, and the Book of Revelation. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.
In approaching the complex book of Revelation, Christopher Frilingos takes an alternative take on interpretation. The integration of ancient theory with post-colonial philosophy brings together an intricate argument that shows the reader to approach the book as a cultural product of the Roman Empire as well as situate it within contemporary thought in regards to defining world and self. Beginning with the foundation set in the theories of Foucalt, Said and Bhabha in regards to power relations. These relations of dominance and subordination serve as the leading theme of Roman cultural products. Frilingos then goes on to describe how he hopes to “complicate nearly all hierarchical pairs – emperor/God and subjects, masculinity and effeminacy, viewed and viewer” within the rest of the book.
Kim, Jean K. “Uncovering Her Wickedness: An Inter(con)textual Reading of Revelation 17 from a Postcolonial Feminist Perspective.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament no. 73 (March 1999): 61-84
This source provided vital information in the development of the whore of Babylon. By merging the thought from many of the scholars examined with Said's postcolonial Orientalism, Kim constructs an argument that female readers have to sacrifice their own femininity to share the author's perspective. Using the female body as the backdrop, Kim argues that by using the whore as a metaphor for a city, the conquest for territory and power continues on this new landscape. She also argues that there is power within the female body that challenges masculinity. These two arguments shaped a new form of interpretation for the primary text and shaped the way in which females approach the text.
Kraybill, J. Nelson. Imperial Cult and Commerce in John’s Apocalypse. England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.
By dissecting the economic landscape of the book of Revelation, Kraybill uses this to create a message that advocates for the marginalized in an unjust commercial world. The author develops the argument through analyzing the ways the Roman economy favored those that were rich or in positions of power. This affluence fueled John's resentment against those in power. Kraybill argues that John himself was not marginalized but he identified with those that were since Christians were excluded from the political-economy of everyday life. John's message thus served to warn Christians about the evil and lust that existed in the Roman economy. This sources was extremely helpful in understanding the Roman economy and how it fueled the feelings of marginalization.
Neusner, Jacob and Ernest S. Frerichs, edit., “To See Ourselves As Others See Us”: Christians, Jews, “Others” in Late Antiquity. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1984.
Serving as a collection of sources, this book really shaped the discussion on insiders and outsiders within the paper. Drawing upon post-colonial thought, Collins shaped the essay to be one that analyzed the ways individuals were characterized as insiders or outsiders in antiquity. The essay then used that foundation to launch into how John of Patmos used images within Revelation to create a power dynamic in the way he critiques Jews and Romans. Through specific examples such as John’s discussion of the throne of Satan, the author displays how critical John is to those who are not Christians.
Rossing, Barbara R. The Choice between Two Cities: Whore, Bride, and Empire in Apocalypse. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1999.
Rossing's novel merges both the political-economic world with the images of extreme femininity. In doing so, she explores how the city of Babylon and the New Jerusalem are juxtaposed throughout the book of Revelation. The dualistic rhetoric used in Revelation serves to critique Rome and distinguish insiders or outsiders. Additionally, Rossing reviews how other authors approach this topic. By surveying their approaches to the text she uses it to develop the foundation of her argument of juxtaposing cities.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York, NY: Pantheon Books, 1978.
As the father of post-colonial philosophy, this novel served to set the foundations of how otheriizing occurs. Said's argument about Orientalism has several definitions but primarily focusing on how it is a discourse that allows the West to describe, teach, and rule over the Other. This discourse establishes power over the other, drawing from Foucault's theory of power and knowledge. By identifying this dichotomy between the East and the West, one can situate the dichotomy of Christian and Other within the same framework.
Thompson, Leonard L. The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
This source served to help set the social context of the ancient world in which the book of Revelation was written in. Thompson broke the book down into orienting the readers to the world behind the text, delved into the world within through the linguistic qualities of the book and the geography discussed in the describing the seven churches. The author also provided a wealth of background onto the varying approaches to understanding the book of Revelation from a variety of scholars. This source helped guide research and proved to be a valuable reference.
Vander Stichele, Caroline. “Just A Whore: The Annihilation of Babylon According to Revelation 17:16.” European Electronic Journal for Feminist Exegesis 1, no. 1 (2000).
Vander Stichele develops an argument that includes the city of Rome, the socioeconomic discourse and the feminine images throughout Revelation. By specifically focusing on the whore, Vander Stichele identifies the link between whore and city . Further, she acknowledges the metaphor of female/city and applies postcolonial thought when dissecting the aspects of the whore of Babylon. This type of metaphor is powerful because people relate to the gender relations and yet do not question them as John seeks new Christian power and authority over the Greco-Roman world.
Yarbo Collins, Adela. Crisis and Catharsis: The Power of the Apocalypse. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1984.
Yarbo Collins’ approach to the book of Revelation brought a neat perspective to the primary text. Her approach analyzed the oppression and stress that was seen within the imagery in the book. The focus of this book seemed to be centered upon the economic impact that influenced the social situation of that time. Additionally, she addresses the effects of various Roman Empires on the apocalyptic imagery seen.
Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schussler. The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1985.
This novel served as one the continual references through this paper. Fiorenza's thorough examination of Revelation through the lens of justice provided a wealth of knowledge on the background and content. The book has three parts to it. The first two parts discuss the kind of theological-historical perspective and ecclesial situation that Revelation is set it. The third part elaborates how John expresses his theological perspective through the visions described. Fiorenza's argument concludes with focusing on the idolatry of Revelation and how we need to become more aware of the androcentric language that pervades in ancient literature. Revelation then can be seen perpetuating injustices through the message of justice it creates.
Frilingos, Christopher A. Spectacles of Empire: Monsters, Martyrs, and the Book of Revelation. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.
In approaching the complex book of Revelation, Christopher Frilingos takes an alternative take on interpretation. The integration of ancient theory with post-colonial philosophy brings together an intricate argument that shows the reader to approach the book as a cultural product of the Roman Empire as well as situate it within contemporary thought in regards to defining world and self. Beginning with the foundation set in the theories of Foucalt, Said and Bhabha in regards to power relations. These relations of dominance and subordination serve as the leading theme of Roman cultural products. Frilingos then goes on to describe how he hopes to “complicate nearly all hierarchical pairs – emperor/God and subjects, masculinity and effeminacy, viewed and viewer” within the rest of the book.
Kim, Jean K. “Uncovering Her Wickedness: An Inter(con)textual Reading of Revelation 17 from a Postcolonial Feminist Perspective.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament no. 73 (March 1999): 61-84
This source provided vital information in the development of the whore of Babylon. By merging the thought from many of the scholars examined with Said's postcolonial Orientalism, Kim constructs an argument that female readers have to sacrifice their own femininity to share the author's perspective. Using the female body as the backdrop, Kim argues that by using the whore as a metaphor for a city, the conquest for territory and power continues on this new landscape. She also argues that there is power within the female body that challenges masculinity. These two arguments shaped a new form of interpretation for the primary text and shaped the way in which females approach the text.
Kraybill, J. Nelson. Imperial Cult and Commerce in John’s Apocalypse. England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.
By dissecting the economic landscape of the book of Revelation, Kraybill uses this to create a message that advocates for the marginalized in an unjust commercial world. The author develops the argument through analyzing the ways the Roman economy favored those that were rich or in positions of power. This affluence fueled John's resentment against those in power. Kraybill argues that John himself was not marginalized but he identified with those that were since Christians were excluded from the political-economy of everyday life. John's message thus served to warn Christians about the evil and lust that existed in the Roman economy. This sources was extremely helpful in understanding the Roman economy and how it fueled the feelings of marginalization.
Neusner, Jacob and Ernest S. Frerichs, edit., “To See Ourselves As Others See Us”: Christians, Jews, “Others” in Late Antiquity. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1984.
Serving as a collection of sources, this book really shaped the discussion on insiders and outsiders within the paper. Drawing upon post-colonial thought, Collins shaped the essay to be one that analyzed the ways individuals were characterized as insiders or outsiders in antiquity. The essay then used that foundation to launch into how John of Patmos used images within Revelation to create a power dynamic in the way he critiques Jews and Romans. Through specific examples such as John’s discussion of the throne of Satan, the author displays how critical John is to those who are not Christians.
Rossing, Barbara R. The Choice between Two Cities: Whore, Bride, and Empire in Apocalypse. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1999.
Rossing's novel merges both the political-economic world with the images of extreme femininity. In doing so, she explores how the city of Babylon and the New Jerusalem are juxtaposed throughout the book of Revelation. The dualistic rhetoric used in Revelation serves to critique Rome and distinguish insiders or outsiders. Additionally, Rossing reviews how other authors approach this topic. By surveying their approaches to the text she uses it to develop the foundation of her argument of juxtaposing cities.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York, NY: Pantheon Books, 1978.
As the father of post-colonial philosophy, this novel served to set the foundations of how otheriizing occurs. Said's argument about Orientalism has several definitions but primarily focusing on how it is a discourse that allows the West to describe, teach, and rule over the Other. This discourse establishes power over the other, drawing from Foucault's theory of power and knowledge. By identifying this dichotomy between the East and the West, one can situate the dichotomy of Christian and Other within the same framework.
Thompson, Leonard L. The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
This source served to help set the social context of the ancient world in which the book of Revelation was written in. Thompson broke the book down into orienting the readers to the world behind the text, delved into the world within through the linguistic qualities of the book and the geography discussed in the describing the seven churches. The author also provided a wealth of background onto the varying approaches to understanding the book of Revelation from a variety of scholars. This source helped guide research and proved to be a valuable reference.
Vander Stichele, Caroline. “Just A Whore: The Annihilation of Babylon According to Revelation 17:16.” European Electronic Journal for Feminist Exegesis 1, no. 1 (2000).
Vander Stichele develops an argument that includes the city of Rome, the socioeconomic discourse and the feminine images throughout Revelation. By specifically focusing on the whore, Vander Stichele identifies the link between whore and city . Further, she acknowledges the metaphor of female/city and applies postcolonial thought when dissecting the aspects of the whore of Babylon. This type of metaphor is powerful because people relate to the gender relations and yet do not question them as John seeks new Christian power and authority over the Greco-Roman world.
Yarbo Collins, Adela. Crisis and Catharsis: The Power of the Apocalypse. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1984.
Yarbo Collins’ approach to the book of Revelation brought a neat perspective to the primary text. Her approach analyzed the oppression and stress that was seen within the imagery in the book. The focus of this book seemed to be centered upon the economic impact that influenced the social situation of that time. Additionally, she addresses the effects of various Roman Empires on the apocalyptic imagery seen.